Fundamental Movement and Physical Abilities of Children

Fundamental Movement and Physical Abilities of Children

In recent years there has been growing interest in the motor development of children. No longer are educators content with the vague notion that children somehow magically increase their abilities to function motorically as they advance in age. Physicians, physiologists, physical educators, and educators in general are becoming increasingly aware of the need for accurate information concerning the course of motor development in children and its influence on the developing child.

Several questions must be answered before sound motor development programs can be formulated.
1. What principles of motor development affect the motor learning of children?
2. What are the influences of maturation and experience on motor development?
3. When is the optimum time to introduce various skills?
4. What is the role of physical fitness and motor fitness in motor development?

Clarification of these questions is needed in order to develop a more comprehensive understanding of children and their needs. If we fail to answer these questions, we run the risk of repeating many of the same mistakes made by curriculum developers who in the past often took existing high-school curricula and "watered them down" to fit the needs of junior-high and elementary-school children.

FUNDAMENTAL MOVEMENT ABILITIES
The process of motor development is dependent on a variety of developmental principles, involving factors such as the direction and the rate of growth, differentiation and integration of muscle systems, readiness for learning, individual differences, phylogenetic and ontogenetic behaviors, and the effects of both maturation and experience. We must be aware of the tremendous complexity of the process of motor development and view our role objectively as a catalyst in this process, attempting to affect change through the interjection of developmentally appropriate movement experiences. We cannot justify the view that free play, or recess time, provides ample opportunity and motivation for children to develop and refine their movement abilities.

Rope jumping is an excellent conditioning and coordination
activity that can be enjoyed by both boys and girls.


The development and refinement of a wide variety of fundamental movement abilities is of great importance. Children need to learn more about their bodies. They need to learn how to effectively gain and maintain their equilibrium in relationship to constant alternations in the force of gravity. They must learn how to move effectively through space using a variety of efficient patterns. Children need to learn how to relate with other objects in their environment and to be able to give and receive force from these objects. It is also important that they become adaptable and flexible in these movement responses rather than exhibit rigid or inflexible behaviors.

The process of developing movement abilities is one in which gradual shifts or increments in the child's level of functioning occur in the stability, locomotor, and manipulative categories of movement behavior. During infancy, children gain the very simplest controls over their movements in order that they may survive at the lowest level of motoric functioning. Preschool and primary-grade children are involved in developing and refining fundamental movement abilities. Fundamental movement abilities are those basic movements of which all that we do are composed. The many complex movements found in sport and dance are no more than more highly elaborated forms of these fundamental movements developed and combined with one another at a more sophisticated level of functioning (see Figure 2.1). As was pointed out earlier in Chapter 1. fundamental movement abilities continue to be elaborated upon, more highly refined, and applied to increasingly complex patterns of movement as the individual develops.

For many years we have made the assumption that children develop mature patterns of movement through the process of maturation only. It is true that various elements of numerous movement patterns can be expected to be present by certain general age periods. It is, however, erroneous to conclude that the maturational factor alone will ensure the development of mature patterns of movement that may be elaborated upon and more highly developed without the benefit of experience. A wide variety of meaningful movement experiences are necessary to help each child refine her or his movements to a point where they are fluid and adaptable to a wide variety of movement situations. Then, and only then, should the individual be exposed to the more complex sport-type experiences. Witness, for example, the comments of children when the boys say, "she throws and runs just a like a girl" or when the girls say, "boys can't jump rope or play hopscotch. Do comments like these really mean that girls cannot learn how to throw and run efficiently, or that boys cannot learn how to jump rope or play hopscotch proficiently? Certainly not. This situation is merely a reflection of cultural factors that often influence the different types of experience that boys and girls are encouraged to take part in.



Figure 2.1 Fundamental Movement Abilities Must Be Developed and Refined Prior to the Introduction of Sport Skills

There are few physiological differences in the early years between boys and girls that would inhibit them from developing and refining efficient movement in those skills often thought to be the exclusive domain of the opposite sex.

Children need to be exposed to a wide variety of fundamental movements and encouraged to refine these basic patterns of movement. Maturation alone will not account for the development of mature efficient patterns of movement. Meaningful movement experiences are of vital importance to children. These are the years when children are learning to move.

Although they are valuable, we must extend ourselves beyond the notion that swings and slides, along with free play and recess time, are all that is needed for children's optimum and balanced motor development. A portion of each day should be spent in some form of guided movement experiences that encourage the child to develop and refine the many important movement abilities used throughout life. Tables 2.1, 2.2, and 2.3 present a list of some rudimentary and fundamental movement abilities and the approximate age at which they begin to emerge in children. These tables should serve as indications of when children are generally maturationally ready to benefit from guided movement experiences.

PHYSICAL ABILITIES OF CHILDREN
The physical fitness and motor fitness of children should be of great concern to all parents and teachers and not just the physical educator and physician. The fitness level of boys and girls in our North American society is of great concern to many. This concern was highlighted by a test of minimum muscular efficiency (the KrausWeber test) that was administered to several thousand American and European children. The results of this 1954 experiment indicated that the performance of American children was significantly poorer that that of their European counterparts. In fact, over 55 percent of the Americans failed the test, as compared to less than 10 percent of the European youth (Kraus. H. and Hirschland, R.P. "Minimum Muscular Fitness Tests in Children,— Research Quarterly 25, 178, 1954). Although the comparison has been criticized for several reasons, it pointed out the important fact that American children are often found to be in poor physical condition.

As a result of the Kraus–Hirschand study, the President of the United States at that time, Dwight D. Eisenhower, established the President's Council on Youth Fitness in 1956. This council was established in an effort to promote the upgrading of the physical fitness of our children. Since that time the President's Council and others concerned with the fitness level of our youth have made many important contributions toward that goal. The A AHPER (American Alliance for Health. Physical Education, and Recreation) Physical Fitness Test was developed for boys and girls in the fourth grade and above. The importance of gaining and maintaining a higher level of fitness has been promoted by the President's Council through publications, newspaper articles, and television spots. The importance of movement, motor development, and good physical education programs as a means of enhancing the fitness level of children has also been promoted.

The fact remains, however, that a great many of our children are still unfit. There are two factors that have contributed greatly to this state of affairs. First, the impact of the importance and need for enhancing physical fitness has been centered on children in middle childhood through adolescence (fourth grade through high school) and into adulthood. Little attention has been paid to the fitness needs of children during the preschool and primary-grade years. As a result our knowledge of the fitness of young children is very limited. This has given rise to the second factor, namely the child's "heart myth" and other basically false assumptions concerning the fitness of children.

Table 2.1 Sequence of Emergence of Selected Locomotor Abilities

Movement Pattern Selected Abilities Approximate Age of Onset
Walking
Walking involves placing one foot in front of the other while maintaining contact with the supporting surface.



Running
Running involves a brief period of no contact with the supporting surface

Jumping
Jumping takes three forms: (1) jumping for distance; (2) jumping for height; and (3) jumping from a height. It involves a one-or two-foot takeoff with a landing on both feet

Hopping
Hopping involves a one-foot takeoff with a landing on the same foot


Galloping
The gallop combines a walk and a leap with the same foot leading throughout

Skipping
Skipping combines a step and a hop in rhythmic alteration



Rudimentary upright unaided gait
Walks sideways
Walks backward
Walks upstair with help
Walks upstairs alone – follow step
Walks downstairs alone-follow step

Hurrieds walk (maintain contact)
First true run (nonsupport phase)
Efficient and refined run
Speed of run increases

Steps down from low object
Jumps down from object with both feet Jumps off floor with both feet
Jumps for distance (about 3 feet)
Jumps for height (about 1 foot)



Hops up to three times on preferred foot
Hops from four to six times on same foot Hops from eight to ten times on same foot Hops distance of 50 feet in about 11 seconds
Hops skillfully with rhythmical alteration

Basic but inefficient gallop
Gallops skillfully



One-footed skip
Skillful skipping (about 20 percent)
Skillful skipping for most



13 months
16 months
17 months
20 months
24 months
25 months

18 months
2-3 years
4-5 years
5 years

18 months
2 years
28 months
5 years
5 years



3 years
4 years
5 years
5 years
6 years

4 years
6 years



4 years
5 years
6 years


Table 2.2 Sequence of Emergence of Selected Manipulative Abilities
Movement Pattern Selected Abilities Approximate Age of Onset
Reach, Grasp, Release
Reaching, grasping, and releasing involve making successful contact with an object, retaining it in one's grasp and releasing it at will


Throwing
Throwing involves inparting force to an object in the general direction of intent








Catching
Catching involves receiving force from an object with the hands, moving from large to progressively smaller balls







Kicking
Kicking involves imparting force to an object with the foot








Striking
Striking involves sudden contact to objects in an overarm, sidearm, or underhand pattern Primitive reaching behaviors Corralling of objects
Palmar grasp
Pincer grasp
Controlled grasp
Controlled releasing


Body faces target, feet remain stationary, ball thrown with forearm extension only
Same as above but with body rotation added
Steps forward with leg on same side as the throwing arm
Mature throwing pattern
Boys exhibit more mature pattern than girls


Chases ball; does not respond to aerial ball.
Responds to aerial ball with delayed arm movements
Needs to be told how to position arms
Fear reaction (turns head away)
Basket catch using the body
Catches using the hands only with
a small ball


Pushes against ball. Does not actually kick it.
Kicks with leg straight and little body movement (kicks at the ball)
Flexes lower leg on backward lift.
Greater backward and forward swing with definite arm opposition
Mature pattern (kicks through the ball)


Faces object and swings in a vertical plane
Swings in a horizontal plane and stands to the side of the object.
Rotates the trunk and hips and shifts body weight forward.
Mature horizontal patterns
2-4 months
2-4 months
3-5 months
8-10 months
12-14 months
14-18 months

2-3 years


3.6-5 years

5-6 years

6.6 years
6 years and over



2 years

2-3 years

2-3 years

3-4 years
3 years
5 years



18 months

2-3 years

3-4 years
4-5 years

5-6 years



2-3 years

4-5 years

5 years

6-7 years

Table 2.3 Sequence of Emergence of Selected Stability Abilities
Movement Pattern Selected Abilities Approximate Age of Onset
Dynamic Balance
Dynamic balance involves maintaining one's equilibrium as the center of gravity shifts








Static Balance
Static balance involves maintaining one's equilibrium while the center of gravity remains stationary





Axial Movements
Axial movements are static postures that involve bending, stretching, twisting, turning, and the like

Walks 1-inch straight line
Walks 1-inch circular line
Stands on low balance
Walks on 4-inch wide beam short distance
Walks on same beam, alternating feet
Walks on 2 or 3-inch beam
Performs bask forward roll
Performs mature forward roll


Pulls to a standing position
Stands without handholds
Stands alone
Balances on one foot 3-5 seconds
Supports body in basic inverted positions



Axial movement abilities begin to develop early in infancy and are progressively refined to a point where they are included in the emerging manipulative patterns of throwing, catching, kicking, striking, trapping, and other activities

3 years
4 years
2 years
3 years

3-4 years

4 years
4 years
6-7 years


10 months
11 months
12 months
5 years
6 years




2 months - 6 years


The child's heart myth has made the assumption that there is a discrepancy in the development of the heart and blood vessels in children and as a result vigorous exercise should be avoided at the risk of "straining" the heart. This widely believed myth has been disproven by Karpovich, Astrand, and others and is reflected in Corbin's statement that "barring injury, a healthy child cannot physiologically injure his heart permanently through physical exercise". Other assumptions, namely that children play all day and get plenty of vigorous activity, no longer hold true. Vigorous exercise and activity have been shown to be important factors in normal healthy growth.

Physical Fitness
A review of the literature on fitness reveals a marked lack of information on children under 8 years of age. The nature of most tests of physical fitness requires the individual to go "all out" and perform at his or her maximum. Anyone familiar with children will readily recognize the difficulty of the situation. The problems lie in: (1) being able to sufficiently motivate the youngsters for maximum performance, (2) accurately determining if a maximum effort has been achieved, and (3) overcoming the fears of anxious parents. Muscular strength, muscular endurance, circulatory—respiratory endurance, and flexibility are generally considered to be the components of physical fitness. Each is briefly discussed in the following paragraphs and summarized in Figure 2.2

Muscular strength is the ability of the body to exert a maximum force against an external object on the body. In its purest sense it is the ability to exert one maximum effort. Children engaged in daily active play are doing much to enhance their lea strength by running and tricycling. Their arm strength is developed through such activities as lifting and carrying large toys, handling tools, and swinging on the monkey bars. Strength is measured by use of a dynamometer or tensiometer. These instruments are calibrated and designed to measure grip strength, leg strength, or back strength.

Muscular endurance is the ability to exert force against an external object on the body for several repetitions. Muscular endurance is similar to muscular strength in the activities performed but differs in the emphasis. Strength-building activities require overloading the muscle or group of muscles to a greater extent than endurance activities. Endurance-building activities have less of an overload on the muscles but require a greater number of repetitions. Boys and girls performing several sit-ups, pull-ups, or push-ups are performing muscular-endurance activities. The daily play routine of children when viewed in toto is an excellent example of endurance. Most of us would find it extremely difficult to match the endurance of an energetic child in terms of relative body proportions.

When we speak of relative endurance we are referring to the child's fitness level adjusted for body weight. It stands to reason that the adult's gross level of fitness is greater than that of children, but when we divide one's body weight into the total fitness score we find that the differences are much less pronounced.



Figure 2.2 The health related components of physical fitness


MUSCULAR STRENGTH
The ability to perform one maximum effort


MUSCULAR ENDURANCE
The ability to perform a movement task over an extended period of time.


CIRCULATORY RESPIRATORY ENDURANCE

The ability of the heart, lungs and vascular system to function efficiently at a high rate for an extended period of time


FLEXIBILITY
The range of motion of the various joints of the body.


Circulatory–respirator endurance is an aspect of muscular endurance specific to the heart, lungs, and vascular system. It refers to the ability to perform numerous repetitions of an activity requiring considerable use of the circulatory and respiratory systems. To date little research has been conducted in this important area with preschool or primary-grade children. It is difficult to accurately measure the volume of oxygen utilized in aerobic (stress producing activities requiring considerable consumption of air) activities without the use of sophisticated scientific equipment. We may assume, however, that the aerobic working capacity of an individual begins to develop as early as the preschool years and is dependent in part on the lifestyle of the individual child. Activities such as running, peddling a bicycle, and swimming should be a part of the daily life experiences of children.

Flexibility is the fourth and final area of physical fitness to be considered. Flexibility is joint-specific and can be improved with practice. Flexibility is the ability of the various joints of the body to move through their full range of motion. Most children are involved in numerous flexibility-developing activities. Their constant bending, twisting, turning, and stretching, along with the natural elasticity of their bodies, accounts for much of their flexibility. We need only to look at the contorted positions that children sit in while watching television or listening to a story to realize that they have a good deal of flexibility in the hip and knee-joint area. All too often, however, the range of motion diminishes in later childhood and adolesence due to lack of activity.

Motor Fitness
Much has been said and done concerning the motor performance of the skilled performer and athlete. The literature is replete with information dealing with the performance levels, mechanics, and physiological capabilities of adolescents and adults, but relatively little work has been done with children. The situation is much the same as with physical fitness and only recently have investigators begun to more closely analyze the motor abilities of young children. The tests available have not been rigorously standardized and are inadequately constructed. The need for tests and scales of motor abilities has increased over the past several years because of the increasing interest in the relationship of motor performance to learning and other factors. Although the available tests of motor ability are inadequate in several ways, they do, upon further standardization and modification in the testing and scoring criteria, offer great potential.

Motor fitness is considered to be one's quality of performance of a movement task. The child that displays skill in activities such as bicycling, swimming, throwing, catching, and climbing is said to possess good motor fitness. The components of motor fitness are briefly discussed in the following paragraphs and diagrammed in Figure 2.3.

Coordination is the ability to integrate separate motor systems with varying sensory modalities into efficient movement. The harmonious working together of the synchrony, rhythm, and sequencing aspects of temporal awareness are the predecessors of coordinated movement. Various parts of the body may be involved. such as eye—foot coordination as in kicking a ball or walking upstairs. Eye—hand coordination is evident in fine motor activities such as bead stringing, tracing, and modeling clay and gross motor activities such as catching, striking, or volleying a ball.



Figure 2.3 The components of motor fitness.

COORDINATION
The rhythmical integration of motor and sensory systems into a harmonious working together of the body parts.

SPEED
The ability to move from one point to another in the shortest time possible over a short distance.

AGILITY
The ability to move from point to point as rapidly as possible while making successive movements in different directions.

POWER
The ability to perform one maximum explosive force.

BALANCE
The ability to maintain one's equilibrium in relationship to the force of gravity in both static and dynamic movement situations.


Speed is the ability to move from one point to another in the shortest time possible. It is influenced by one's reaction time (the amount of time elapsed from the signal "go" to the first movements of the body) and movement time (the time elapsed from the initial movement to completion of the activity). Reaction time is generally considered to be innate but movement time may be improved with practice. In children we may witness their speed of movement in such activities as crawling, running, climbing, and playing tag. We may foster its natural development by providing plenty of opportunity and open space in which to run and play.

Agility is the ability to change the direction of the body accurately while it is moving from one point to another as fast as possible. It is the ability to make quick and accurate shifts in body position and direction of movement. Agility may he enhanced in young children through participation in tagging and dodging activities. Performing through mazes and obstacle courses are also aids to agility development.

Power is the ability to perform one maximum effort in as short a period as possible. It is sometimes referred to as "explosive strength'' and represents the combination of strength times speed. This combination of strength and speed is exhibited in children by jumping, striking, and throwing for distance. The speed of contraction of the muscles involved, as well as the strength and coordinated use of these muscles, determines the degree of power.

Balance is a complex quality of motor fitness. It is influenced by vision, the inner ear, cerebellum, proprioceptors. and the skeletal muscles. Balance is the ability to maintain one's equialibrium in relation to the force of gravity. It is the ability to make minute alterations in one's body position when it is placed in various positions of balance. Balance may be subdivided into static and dynamic balance. Static balance is the ability to maintain one's equilibrium in a fixed position, such as when standing on one toot or on a balance board. Dynamic balance is the ability to maintain one's equalibrium while the body is in motion. Walking on a balance beam and bouncing on a trampoline are examples of dynamic balance activities.

In actuality all movement involves an element of either static or dynamic balance, because balance is a basic aspect of all movement. As such it is very important for children to begin developing their balancing abilities at an early age.

Summary
The motor development of children represents one aspect of the total developmental process. It is intricately interrelated with both the cognitive and affective domains of